Neuro-linguistic programming
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This
article is about the personal development model. For the neuroscience, see neurolinguistics.
Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is a set of techniques, axioms
and beliefs, that adherents use primarily as an approach to personal
development. NLP was influenced by the ideas of the New Age era as well as
beliefs in human potential. The initial ideas of NLP were developed around 1973
by Richard Bandler, a student, and John Grinder, a professor of linguistics, in
association with the social scientist Gregory Bateson. The term
"Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes a set of models and principles
meant to explore how mind and neurology (neuro), language patterns (linguistic),
and the organization of human perception and cognition into systemic patterns (programming)
interact to create subjective reality and human behaviors.
NLP is predicated on the idea that our subjective
reality drives beliefs, perceptions and behaviors, and that therefore behavior
change, transforming beliefs, and treatment of traumas is possible.[1][2][3] Techniques based upon
language patterns and body language cues derived from the observations of
several therapists[1] were
described by the original developers as "therapeutic magic," with NLP
itself described as 'the study of the structure of subjective experience".[4][5] They are predicated upon the
principle that all behaviors (whether functional or dysfunctional) are not
random, but have a structure which can be understood.[3][6]
According to Lilienfeld et al (2002) though NLP is
currently promoted within psychotherapy associations,[7][8] it is criticized as
pseudoscientific[9] and for
involving exaggerated claims, unethical practices,[10] and mass-marketed psychobabble.[11] NLP is considered by Dylan (1988)
as fraudulent and by Dryden (2001) as doubtful.[12][13] Beyerstein, Lilienfeld[7] and Eisner report that there is
concern about NLP contributing to the spread of misconceptions about the mind
and brain and NLP techniques being potentially harmful, and are concerned over
government and business organizations and the public being duped into adopting
NLP.
History and development
Main article: History of
neuro-linguistic programming
1970s: Founding and early development
"Neuro-linguistic programming" denotes
an interconnected relationship between mind and body (neuro), language
patterns (linguistic), and the organization of those parts into systemic
patterns (programming). Despite the possible different meanings of the
words, it has no connection to programming, or neuroscience.[14]. It was co-founded and developed
jointly by Richard Bandler and John Grinder under the tutelage of noted anthropologist
Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1960s
and 1970s. Although NLP has interest in these areas, and Grinder was a linguist
at the time when it was created. At that time the Californian human potential
seminars were developing into a viable industry. Alfred Korzybski had influenced
Gregory Bateson and several schools of thought, including those at Esalen in
California, most notably, the map is not the territory and ideas about human
modeling that were adopted by Bandler and Grinder[3]. Starting in 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an
interest the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls,
family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society
for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic
Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were
published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie
Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with
the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.
1980s: Growth, spread, new developers, alternate styles, scientific assessment
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With the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic
Programming Volume 1 with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and
Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP
started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals, some ethically, and
some opportunistically, often under multiple confusing brand names. There had
even been some disagreement over who originally named the field, for example,
critic Margaret Singer quotes Bandler as saying that NLP was "phrased on
the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a
policeman asked his occupation."[15].
During the 1980s John Grinder developed a form of NLP called the New Code of
NLP which attempted restore a whole body systemic approach to NLP. Richard
Bandler also published new processes with submodalities as published in Using
Your Brain: For a Change (1984). Meanwhile Anthony Robbins who taught NLP
in the late 1970s began mass marketing products incorpoating aspects of NLP
(renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning). Other practitioners and
trainers modified, renamed and developed their own variations of NLP, for
example, Michael Hall offers NLP with Neurosemantics and Tad James with Time
Line TherapyTM. While Tad James and Michael Hall are certainly
well-known in the field of NLP, people like Judith DeLozier and Connirae and
Stephen Andreas have been much more influential in its development. [citation needed]
Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single
definitive system of NLP.[16]
In the late 1980s research reviews by Sharpley
(1984, 1987) and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an
overall negative assessment, following this, except for sporadic articles on
NLP in different fields, there was a marked decrease in NLP research. Despite
this, the use of NLP continued to grow.
1990s: divisions, controversy, marketing, etc
This section is a stub. You can help by expanding it.
2000s: new fields, government regulation, legal actions, core techniques
While the NLP community has become splintered most
NLP material acknowledges the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and
Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s. Around
2001, the law suits finally became settled. During the 1990s, tentative
attempts were made to put NLP on a more formal and better regulated footing, in
countries such as the UK. With different authors, individual trainers
practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often
branding them as "NLP":[17],
the training standards and quality differed greatly. Around 1978, NLP
practitioner certification was set up as a 20 day program with the aim of
training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional
qualifications. In Europe, the European NLP therapy association has been
promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The length of
training varies from short hobby course, to 20 day course, to longer courses
for trainers and professionals. Moreover the multiplicity and general lack of
quality controls has also led to NLP labelled in unfavourable ways politically,
for example in Germany, and confusing for consumers.[18]
Concepts and methods
Neuro-linguistic Programming is an eclectic field,
and covers a wide array of aspects of personal development. There is less
empirical or experimental support for these methods than comparable approaches,
relying on anecdotal evidence for its efficacy [citation needed].
Its methods deal with issues ranging from reframing negative beliefs, to
dealing with stage fright by reducing simple phobias, and more generally to
communications, and motivational products. Some trainers offer techiques for
psychotherapy, self-help, depression, or addiction, as well as peak performance
assistance business or sports. In rare cases even subjects such as meditation
or ESP are addressed.[citation needed] NLP as an
approach to therapy has been frequently de-emphasized as the primary purpose
for NLP. At the same time, others within the NLP community, consider therapy to
be a core application, and advocate its importance. NLP and its techniques have
been widely adopted for use in motivational seminars, adult education, and
management and sales training, often being mixed with pop psychology, as well
as other applications outside of mainstream.
Presuppositons
Main article: Principles
of NLP
The philosophy of NLP can be summarised in the
idea of Korzybski and Bateson that the map is not the territory. That is,
rather than acting directly upon the world, we act based on our maps of the
world. Because these maps are limited and do not always serve us, the job of an
NLP practitioner is to increase choice and flexibility with these maps; and
then in the world.[3] There
are a number of aphoristic expressions which serve to construct practical
models for learning and communication. NLP focuses on the present and thinks
about past experiences, even failures, as resources so that there is no
failure, only feedback. While this may not be necessarily true, by acting as
if, for example, all human action has a positive intention it
presupposes that at some level even the most negative behavior is attempting to
express some positive intention. This serves as a means to arrive at what
works rather than what is true and encourages the feedback cycle to
drive the interactions. [19].
This is also evident in the aphorism, the meaning of your communication is
in the response. This early stance of Bandler and Grinder could be seen as
anti-theoretical; at the same time, it encourages the individual to be
responsible for their own learning by way of enriching personal resources and
by freeing up their impoverished maps of the world.[14]
Core techniques
Though techniques vary between schools there are
some core NLP techniques that are shared. Physical mirroring of posture,
breathing or verbal mirroring of keywords, and sensory specific language
(predicates) is used to facilitate and maintain rapport during a conversation.[20] Language pattern techniques from
the meta model, such as how specifically and what specifically
are used to elicit information or define outcomes for a client in
psychotherapy, or more generally for information gathering in conversation. Meta
model questioning techniques are proposed for combining with general language
and use of metaphor, to induce trance, pace belief, and make interventions.
NLP techniques proposed for refining goals, elliciting
resource states, or reframing negative beliefs rely on manipulating thinking
processes or sequences of representational systems. anchor, for example
involves associating a resourceful state to a certain touch which is then
attached to a problem context by thinking about the problem context as the resourceful
state is triggered by that same touch. [21]
Other techniques encourage thinking about different aspects of goals and objectives,
for example in Robert Dilts' Neurological levels, strategic vision, spiritual
aspects or other beliefs, as well as effects the proposed changes may have in
the environmental context may be considered. [22]
Whereas John Grinder, in New Code of NLP prefers to use the more general
pattern of perceptual positions which temporily engages the points of view of
others in a relationship by stepping into the shoes of the others
involved[23].
Representational systems
Main article: Representational
systems (NLP)
When people are involved in tasks, internal
representations are being engaged at the same time. You may be making
conversation, kicking a ball or riding a horse, visual, auditory, kinesthetic
(and possibly olfactory and gustatory), sequences of representations are being
activated to different degrees. These representations are either recalled or
constructed. [16] A person
will also give away cues by way of eye gaze, breathing patterns or verbal
predicates, as to what representational system is currently being used
predominately. Robert Dilts[24]
summarises the cues as to what representational systems is being used in the BAGEL
model:
- Body posture (Head position, and lean)
- Accessing cues (Changes in tone and tempo of voice)
- Gestures (Timing, and position of gestures)
- Eye movements (The direction of and movement of eyes)
- Language patterns (Sensory specific language, for example, Visual: "to clearly understand" or Kinesthetic: "to grasp a concept")
Additionally, hemispheric differences (Lateralization
of brain function) have been used to support representational systems in
NLP. For instance, Robert Dilts once proposed that eye movements (and sometimes
gestures) correspond to visual/auditory/kinesthetic representations and thus to
sides of the brain. It has been claimed that eye movements to the left correspond
with recalled memory, while eye movements to the right indicate construction.
Representational systems are then connected to logic, analysis, and creative,
imaginative duality.[25]
Modern neuroscience indicates that early NLP's notions of neurology were overly
simplictic in regards to these left/right brain hemispheric differences.[26][24][27] The idea that people have
visual, auditory and kinesthetic learning styles has little substantive
evidence.[28]
Related presuppositions
- Belief, objectives, internal state and strategies can be described in terms of the organization and sequences of internal representations; they then have a discernible and communicable structure.[5][24]
- Since behavior and its substrates — internal state and strategy — can be imitated and then codified, a person's skill can be learned by others.[5]
Milton model
Main article: Milton
model
Several expressions can be traced to specific
models in NLP, such as Milton Erickson. Bandler and Grinder (1976) state that
Erickson was able to build rapport his client by mirroring physical and verbal
patterns; to model this requires that attention is placed primarly on the
client's responses. They also borrow Erickson's notion of conscious and unconscious
mind.[3]
NLP was in part derived from the work of Milton H.
Erickson[29] and
subsquently, those who emphasise the therapeutic application often use
terminology borrowed from Erickson. They focus on hypnotic phenomena,
such as, the use of unconscious communications, therapeutic metaphor,
post-hypnotic suggestion, pain control, age regression, and enhanced sensory
perception.
Submodalities
Main article: Submodalities
A fundamental idea in NLP is that rather than
responding to the world directly, we respond to our maps of the world. Internal
imagery is a common theme in personal development, psychotherapy and sports;
NLP adds to this the idea of submodalities[14],
that is, the subjective size, location, brightness of internal imagery, the
volume and location of internal sounds, and location and intensity of other
sensations. A change in the submodalities will change the maps and then the way
we respond in the world.[30].
For example, the swish pattern is a visualization technique designed to change
behaviors by switching (or swishing) the cue stimulus for an unwanted with the
self-image doing a desired alternate behavior. [31] As with most techniques, the imagined consequences
of any proposed changes are also normally considered within a framework of
ecology.[31]
Cinema technique
Another well-known visualization known as the cinema
technqiue (also know as, visual / kinesthetic dissociation or VK/D) whereby
negative states associated to phobias are separated by playing the memory of
the phobia backwards very fast[1].
It has been promoted for treating trauma and phobias[32]. Professor Charles Figley,
Director of the Florida State University Traumatology Institute, has included
the cinema technique or VK/D as a "promising treatment approach"[33]. VK/D has had less support from
Lilienfeld et al (1999) who maintains that VK/D are unvalidated.[34]. Generally the techniques have
little support in the psychological and experimental literature.
Techniques
- Circle of Excellence: Standing in an imaginary magic circle, filling it with symbols and archetypes of choice, in order to banish negativity and enhance positive thinking for use in any NLP situation[35][36]
- Perceptual positions: A situation is considered from different points of view of those involved, typically 1.self, 2.other, 3.a neutral observer, 4. a theoretical god's eye view.[23][24]
- The Swish Pattern: Repetitively interchanging negative mental imagery and positive imagery, often saying or imagining a "SWISSSHHH" sound in order to affect a behavior change[36][30][37]
- Visual / Kinesthetic dissociation: Imagining floating back and out of the body in order to diss-associate with a negative experience.[1][38]
- Rapport: Mirroring or copying somebody's body language, and representational language (VAK) in an attempt to gain trust and directly influence their subconscious mind (Bandler et al 1977p10).
- Submodality modification: Deliberately changing the size, brightness, movement of internal images in an attempt to alter the impact of those images[30][39]
Ecology
Particular awareness is given to what is termed
'ecology' which, in NLP, means the state of affairs surrounding any specific
intervention. As a "client-oriented" methodology, the client's
subjective perception is treated with respect, and to a large degree the
client's developing perception of a problem or situation which provides the
feedback and basis for guidance within NLP intervention. An essential principle
in some NLP training, ecology involves showing an appreciation for other people's
point of view. By being attentive to the requirements and requests of the
people effected by proposed change and to take into consideration the other's
position and circumstances in addition to one's own objectives, beliefs and
desires about what is wanted. Explicit ecological checks feature in some NLP
techniques, for example, the six step reframe specifically asks if there are
any objection to proposed changes before continuing with the process. More
generally, ecological thinking encourages the exploration of behavior and how
changes in behavior might have flow on consequences in the environment or with
other people involved. If there are any objections, alternatives may be found
to to resolve the issues in some way.[1]
The same process has been applied to business or business or conflict
resolution and in this case could also be seen as a win-win philosophy. The
term "ecology" (borrowed in the sense of "how disparate things
co-exist in balance") is used to signify the careful checking needed to
ensure that all aspects of a situation are taken into account, such as the
well-being of others involved, the ethics of the work done, the beneficial
nature of goals sought, any secondary gains affected, and so on.[40] Bateson's influence can be found
in map-territory, as well as systemic ideas that life mind and body are highly
interconnected systems.[23][37]
and that multiple descriptions are better than one.
Modeling
Main article: Modeling
(NLP)
Neuro-linguistic Programming has developed
progressively since its early development by Bandler and Grinder (1979) to
include the modeling of successful approaches of exceptional people in any
field, together with a set of useful strategies for setting and achieving
desired goals. As Bandler and Grinder state "the function of NLP modeling
is to arrive at descriptions which are useful."[1] The purpose of modeling is to
assimilate, through imitation, the behaviors of successful people, before
transferring the skills to others or otherwise describing them. The aim of NLP
modeling is to discover the elements of what the expert is doing that the
expert is not aware of. [41]
Reception of NLP
The popularity of NLP has grown through it's
public reception, and is said to have achieved a "cult status" in
modern society [42] (p.625).
NLP, has equally been criticized by some clinical
psychologists, management scholars, linguists, and psychotherapists, concerning
ineffectiveness, pseudoscientific explanation of linguistics and neurology,
ethically questionable practices, promotion by exaggerated claims, and promises
of extraordinary therapeutic results. Reviews have characterized NLP as
mass-marketed psychobabble.[27][11]
Sanghera, a columnist for Financial Times (London, 2005) writes, "critics
say NLP is simply a half-baked conflation of pop psychology and pseudoscience
that uses jargon to disguise the fact that it is based on a set of banal, if
not incorrect, presuppositions"[43]
Research reviews
Research reviews have concluded that NLP has
failed to demonstrate its claimed efficacy in controlled studies. Sharpley
(1984) review found no support NLP techniques and models, for example,
preferred representational system (PRS) and predicate matching. A single
critique by Einspruch and Forman (1985) contended that Sharpley (1984) made a
number of methodological errors in "a review of research on the preferred
representational system".[44]
Firstly, researcher’s lack of full understanding of pattern recognition in an
experienced NLP context. Secondly, there was an inadequate control of context.
Thirdly, unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy. In addition, there
were inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous "logical
mistakes" in the research methodology. However, Sharpley (1987) rebutted
with additional experimental evidence to further demonstrate his case that NLP
was ineffective and in error in both method and model.[4] In 1988 United States National
Research Council (a board of 14 prepared scientific experts), report found that
"individually, and as a group, these studies fail to provide an empirical
base of support for NLP assumptions...or NLP effectiveness. The committee
cannot recommend the employment of such an unvalidated technique"; they
assert that "instead of being grounded in contemporary, scientifically
derived neurological theory, NLP is based on outdated metaphors of brain
functioning and is laced with numerous factual errors"[16] Michael Heap (1988), clinical
psychologist who had an early interest in NLP, asserts that "the
effectiveness of NLP therapy undertaken in authentic clinical contexts of
trained practitioners has not yet been properly investigated."[45] and further that "there is
not, and never has been, any substance to the conjecture that people represent
their world internally in a preferred mode which may be inferred from their
choice of predicates and from their eye movements."[citation needed]
The psychological research almost completely dried
up after NLP's failure in those reviews. Efran and Lukens (1990) state that the
"original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and
now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy".[46](p.122). Von Bergen et al (1997)
states that "in relation to current understanding of neurology and
perception, NLP is in error" and that "NLP does not stand up to
scientific scrutiny".[47]
Donald Eisner (2000) states that NLP proponents have not "one iota of
clinical research supports their claims. Apparently, no peer-reviewed
researched has been published in over a decade. Moreover, there has been
virtually no comparative research recently that assesses NLP's
effectiveness." With no clinical support, journalist Donald Eisner (2000)
believes that NLP proponents make grossly misleading claims about its
effectiveness.[8] In Brianscams:
Neuromythologies of the New Age, Barry Beyerstein states that when
propoents of New Age therapies or pseudosciences are challenged, "critics
typically encounter anecdotes and user testimonials where there ought to be
rigorous pre-and post treatment comparisons". Moreover, Beyerstein states
that "bogus therapies can be explained by the placebo effect, social
pressure, superficial symptomatic rather than core treatment, and
overestimating some apparent successes while ignoring, downplaying, or
explaining away failures."[48]
Extending from the lack of support for the efficacy of representational systems
(PRS) in influencing trainers, Beyerstein asserts that "though it claims
neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship between
cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude
analogies." Margaret Singer cited the NRC research committee who stated
that there was no evidence of its claimed effectiveness.[49][15] Singer also states that
"the process involves pretending that a model works, trying it, then if
you don’t get results, discard it and try something else"[49].
NLP is considered a "dubious therapy" by
Dryden (2001).[13] and as a
"dubious technique" by Keith Dobson in Handbook of
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapies (2001)[50]
. In Crazy Therapies (1996), Singer (1996) states that "the process involves
pretending that a model works, trying it, then if you don’t get results,
discard it and try something else"[51][16]
Extending from the lack of support for the efficacy of representational systems
(PRS) in influencing trainers, Beyerstein (1990) asserts that "though it
claims neuroscience in its pedigree, NLP's outmoded view of the relationship
between cognitive style and brain function ultimately boils down to crude
analogies."[48]
Professor Charles Figley, has incorporated the cinema technique (VK/D) as a
"power therapy" or "promising treatment" for trauma;
critics have called them "alphabet therapies"[52], as these "power
therapies", including the NLP cinema technique (V/KD), Thought Field
Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing, Emotional Freedom
Technique and Traumatic Incident Reduction, have been taught in trauma
workshops without much substantative clinical support.[7] According to Eisner, the various
claims NLP proponents make have no clinical support and are grossly
missleading. Devilly (2005) states that "controlled studies shed such a
poor light on NLP and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and
changeable claims that researchers found it unwise to test the theory any
further"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or
1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets: The science has come and gone,
yet the belief still remains".[52]
Mental health practice
Clinical psychologists and other professionals
have used NLP techniques in applications to relieve mental distress in a health
and social care context. There has been little scientific research conducted to
evaluate these NLP techniques for use in psychological care and interventions
(psychotherapy). According to Lilienfeld (2002) the majority of interventions
in the psychotherapy and mental health context are unvalidated or
scientifically unsupported which threatens to undermine the reliability of
mental health practice; this criticism can also be extended to the use of NLP
in the psychotherapy and mental health context.[53]. A notable example is V/KD or the cinema technique
which has been taught alongside other promising treatments in trauma workshops.
Other so called "power therapies" led by Professor Charles Figley
include Thought Field Therapy or Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing,
Emotional Freedom Technique and Traumatic Incident Reduction. These "power
therapies" have been criticised for lacking substantive clinical support.[7]. Devilly (2005) raised similar
concerns for psychology and psychiatry.[52]
Clinical psychologists have identified
characteristics that help to separate unvalidated or scientifically unsupported
approaches to psychotherapy from those based on the scientific method. NLP is
an eclectic field and claims to be interested more in what works rather
than what is true which in itself is a statement opposed to the
scientific method. Proponents of NLP have used scientific sounding language,
make exaggerated claims, and there has been a lack of peer reviewed literature,
while relying on testimonial and anecdotal evidence.[54] Furthermore, there has even been
suggestions that NLP may be an untestable theory[4]. NLP is also based on some of Freud's most flawed and
pseudoscientific thinking that has been rejected by the mainstream psychology
community for decades[8]
Commercialization
This section is a stub. You can help by expanding it.
NLP has also continued to be marketed as a
science. This is especially evident in the popular titles such as NLP: The
New Technology of Achievement. It is also evident in some marketing and
advertising of NLP.[55]
Clinical psychologist Margaret Singer criticises NLP for appealing to science
to raise its profile, stating that "none of the NLP developers have not
done any research to prove their models correct though NLP promoters and
advertisers continue to call the originators scientists and use such terms as
science, technology and hi-tech psychology in describing NLP"(p.172). Steve
Salerno is more critical of NLP, portraying NLP as simply part of the self-help
movement. Salerno uses the acronym "SHAM": the Self-Help and
Actualization Movement and describes self-help as ineffective and potentially
socially harmful.[56]
Corballis argues that "NLP is a thoroughly
fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability. NLP
has little to do with neurology, linguistics, or even the respectable
subdiscipline of neurolinguistics".[26]
Psycholinguist Willem Levelt states that (translated into English by Pieter
Drenth) "NLP is not informed about linguistics literature, it is based on
vague insights that were out of date long ago, their linguistics concepts are
not properly construed or are mere fabrications, and conclusions are based upon
the wrong premises. NLP theory and practice has nothing to do with
neuroscientific insights or linguistics, nor with informatics or theories of
programming".[27][57]
In the skeptics dictionary, Robert Carroll states that it is impossible to
determine a "correct" NLP model.[17]
Implied religiosity and spirituality
Of NLP, Sociologist and Christian scholar, Stephen
J Hunt says "it is a technique rather than an organised religion and is
used by several different human potential movements" yet that it has an
"implied religiosity".(p.195).[58]
Skeptics have described NLP as simply a "New Age" development,
especially given its apparent lack of empirical evidence, but this also has
religious connotations.[48][53]
For instance, NLP practitioners have attempted to model spiritual experiences,
which are inherently subjective, lacking in scientific support. Regarding spiritual
practices, Dilts states that John Grinder was influenced by Carlos Castaneda's Don
Juan[24] in developing the
"double hypnotic induction, perceptual positions", and "moving
energies into other realities" (p.143). At the same time Grinder contends
that any venture into personal beliefs of "spirituality" in
psychotherapy or NLP would be an ethical violation. [37] Dilts' 'Neurological Levels of
Learning' are sometimes associated with the chakras with spirit linked to the
crown chakra. David V. Barrett (2001) states that "the brief biographies
of NLP Trainers usually give the names of the people they have trained under,
this could be seen as similar to new Eastern origin religions tracing themselves
back through a progression of gurus"[59](p.434),
he states in his work The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and
Alternative Religions, NLP is not included as a religion; it is described
as a technique or series of techniques, or a process. It is used by some
religions, and NLP as a philosophy does exhibit some characteristics which are
sometimes found in some religions, but "overall the balance comes down
against it being labelled as a religion."(p.26)[59]
Manipulation and ethical concerns
Researchers such as Sommer (1998) and Novopashin
(2004) describe NLP as a kind of cult or psychocult.[49][60][61][62][63][8][4](dubious; discuss)
A German educational authority banned the use of NLP in their area and stated
that it has a close similarity to Scientology.[61][citation needed] NLP has also been
described by Margaret Singer as a commercial cult, and has been criticised
within the business sector for being coercive.[49]
Critics say NLP is adopted as a pretext for
applying ritual, authority control, dissociation, reduced rationalization, and
social pressure to obtain compliance or to induce dependence.[62] According to Devilly (2005) it is
common for pseudoscientific developments to set up a granfalloon in order to
promote in-group rituals and jargon, and to attack critics.[52] Ethical concerns of NLP’s
encouragement towards manipulation have been raised by exaggerated book titles
such as The Unfair Advantage: Sell with NLP and NLP the New Art and
Science of Getting What You Want. In contrast, therapy and coaching fields
require an ethical code of conduct (eg: Psychotherapy and Counseling Federation
of Australia Ethical Guidelines).
In addition, Beyerstein states that "ethical
standards bodies and other professional associations state that unless a
technique, process, drug, or surgical procedure can meet requirements of
clinical tests, it is ethically questionable to offer it to the public,
especially if money is to change hands"[citation needed].
Salerno has criticised NLP for unethically encouraging the belief in non
existent maladies and insecurities by otherwise normal individuals [Quote
from source requested on talk page to verify interpretation of source].
For example, Salerno highlights a contradiction in Tony Robbins divorce given
that Robbins had been a proponent of NLP and had marketed products for the
"perfect marriage"; this has disenchanted followers of Robbins.[56] Drenth (2003) explains that NLP is
driven by economic motives and "manipulation of credulity" of
clients, and explains that "often pseudoscientific practices are motivated
by loathsome pursuit of gain". Drenth clarifies this with reference to the
well known "financial exploitation of the victims of scientology, Avatar
and similar movements".
Human resources
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Human resource experts such as Von Bergen et al
(1997) consider NLP to be inappropriate for management and human resource
training [64][citation needed].
Druckman and Swets (1988) found NLP (specifically matching representational
systems) to be ineffective concerning influence, however the idea of modeling
of expertise appeared to have merit[16].
Within management training there have been complaints concerning pressured
adoption of fundamental beliefs tantamount to a forced religious conversion.[49] [Quote from source
requested on talk page to verify interpretation of source]
Education
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- Craft (2001) suggests that NLP takes an social constructivist approach to learning theory whereby instructors have to adapt to the role of facilitators and not teachers.[22]. In this approach the students take responsibility for their own states, and learning experience.
- Beyerstein[48] states that a method should be supported using controlled studies before it is applied in education.